Chemical Composition, Calcium, Zinc and Phytate Interrelationships in Albizia lebbeck and Daniellia oliveri seeds

Introduction

Albizia lebbeck is of the family Mimosaceae. It is a moderate to large deciduos tree that reaches 30m in height in rain forests. The tree develops a straight holed when grown in dense forest, but it spreads and low branching in the open. Albizia lebbeck tree, annually, produce abundant seeds from papery pods; of about 20cm long and 3cm wide. “Woman’s tongue” and “rattle pod” are derived from the noise of pods shaking in the wind. (Hedge and Relward, 1981). It is a well known in the Indian subcontinent for its range of uses. Although geographically widespread, little is known about the species outside India.

Deniellia oliveri is known as “Iya” in Yoruba and Rolfe in English. According to Balogun and Adebayo (2009), Deniellia oliveri is in amazon region of South America while Keay et al. (1964) said the tree is particularly found in abundance in the “moisten” savannah forest zones in Nigeria which extends westernly to Senegal, East to Sudan and South to Angola.

Phytic acid (myo –inositol hexa-phosphate) is a theromolabile rachitogenic agent (Metor, 1993). It is an important constituent of certain legumes, cereals and forage plants which is capable of chelating divalent cationic minerals like calcium, iron, magnesium and zinc (Liener, 1983). They are extremely insoluble even at pH 3 – 4 and are not readily absorbed from the intestinal tract. Such chelates make the elements nutritionally unavailable thereby inducing dietary deficiency. Phytic acid has been implicated in the reduced adsorption of calcium from the gastro intestinal tracts and consequently causing rickets when chicks are fed with cereals such as sorghum (Nelson et al., 1968). Similarly, zinc and iron deficiency symptoms have been reported in man and chicken when fed with diets high in phytic acid.

Nwokolo and Bragg (1977) have shown that there is a significant inverse relationship between phytic acid and the availability of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and zinc in feed stuffs like soybean, palm kernel, rape seed and cotton seed meals. High levels of phytic acid in monogastric animals can reduce the absorption of calcium by up to 35% as well as chelating with iron, magnesium and zinc. Phytic acid can react with protein to form phytate – protein complex (O’Dell and Savage, 1960). This complex, incorporates about 16% of the protein in beans, through the reaction is pH dependent. Formation of phytate – cation protein complex is believed to account for the decreased mineral bioavailability observed in animals consuming diets high in phytic acid.

Studies investigating the significance of the Phy:Zn, Ca:Phy and Ca x Phy:Zn interaction for human zinc status are limited because information on the Zinc and Phytate content of foods is not available (Adeyeye et al., 2000).

There is little or no information about these seeds, so the purpose of this work is to determine the chemical composition, nutritive and antinutritive values of these seeds to enchase the food composition table. 

Materials And Methods

Albizia lebbeck and Deniellia oliveri seeds were harvested from trees abundant in and around Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and Federal University of Agriculture, Markurdi, all in the Northern part of Nigeria. The seeds were sun dried, de-shellled powered and stored in polythene bags until used.

Chemical composition and antinutrional analysis

Chemical composition and antinutrional analysis were carried out according to the procedure of Association of Official Analystical Chemist (AOAC, 1995).

Mineral composition

One gram of the seed flour was weighed into the crucible. The sample was ashed in a muffle furnace at 550⁰C until completely ashed. The ash was dissolved into 10% (^V/_V) HCl, heated to boiling, cooled and filtered and made up to 100ml mark in a volumetric flask with deionized water and the mineral analysis was determined by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) (Vogel, 1962).

Table 1: Proximate Composition of Albizia lebbeck and Daniellia oliveri seeds flour

Parameter	Concentration
	Albizia lebbeck	Danielia oliveri
Moisture Crude fat Crude protein Ash Crude fibre Carbohydrate (by difference) Bulk density (g/cm3) Calculated fatty acid (g/100g) Energy (KJ/100g)	3.23 ± 0.33 13.40 ± 0.42 42.80 ± 0.40 4.51 ± 0.24 3.56 ± 0.32 32.50 ± 0.30 0.44 ± 0.33 10.70 1776	2.85 ± 0.23 8.32 ± 0.42 33.40 ± 0.40 4.30 ± 0.35 6.35 ± 0.53 44.60 ± 0.30 0.41 ± 0.52 6.66 1634

 

Each value represents mean ± standard deviation of three replicate determinations.

Calculate fatty acid = (0.8 x crude fat)g/100g (Aremu et al., 2006).

Calculate metablolisable energy = (%proteins x 17 + %fat x 37 + %carbohydrate x 17)KJ/100g.

Table 2: Mineral Contents (mg/100g) of Albizia lebbeck and Daniellia oliveri

Mineral & Antinutrients (mg/100g)	Albizia lebbeck           Danielia oliveri
Ca Mg K Na Na/K Fe Mn Zn Cu P Ca/P Tannic acid Polyphenol Cyanide Phytate Oxalate Alkaloid % Saponin % Flavonoid %	320.00 366.00 540.00 7.22 0.05 14.60 3.23 2.22 5.12 420 0.76 0.65 0.16 0.093 3.83 0.14 1.37 0.53 0.22	263.00 168.00 680.00 7.42 0.011 26.40 6.47 1.52 2.23 384 0.68 1.22 0.49 0.42 7.13 0.19 7.48 3.27 0.86

 

Table 3: Concentration of Ca, Zn, Phytate and Calculated Phy:Zn, Ca:Phy and [Ca][Phy]/[Zn] Mole ratios of Albizia lebbeck and Daniellia oliveri

Mineral & Antinutrient	Albizia lebbeck           Danielia oliveri
Phytin phosphorus pP% Ca (mg/100g) Zn (mg/100g) P (mg/100g) Phytate (g/100g) a Phy: Zn b Ca: Phy c [Ca][Phy]/[Zn] pP/P % Ca/P Ca/Mg	1.2 320 2.22 420 3.83 0.17 1379 0.014 0.29 0.76 0.87	0.22 263 1.52 384 7.13 0.48 636 0.03 0.06 0.68 1.56

^a(mg of Phy/MW (molecular weight) of Phy: Mg of Zn/MW of Zn)

^b(mg of Ca/MW of Ca:Mg of Phy/MW of Phy)

 ^c(Mol/kg of Ca) (Mol/kg Phy/Mol/kg Zn )

Results and Discussion

Table 1 shows the proximate composition, bulk density, calculated metabolisable energy and calculated fatty acid values of Albizia lebbeck & Davellia oliveri. The moisture content 3.23 and 2.85 is low compared with most tropical crop seeds. Tiger nut (cyperus esculentus) 9.47% (monago And Unwakwe ,2009) and whole meal flour (Triticum dinim) 7.93% (Adeyeye and Aye, 2005). The low moisture content in the seeds flour suggest that they will have a long shelf life (Oyenuga, 1968), since the low moisture content may prevent microbial spoilage and pest attack during storage. The crude fat value of the seeds 13.40% & 8.32% are also low when compare with that of B. glabra seed of 34.8% (Olaofe et al., 2006), Cucumeropsis edulis 43.8% (Ige et al., 1994) and pumpkin seed 47.7% (Aisegbu, 1989) but the value of Albizia agree with that of pitanga cherries 15.63% (Amoo et al., 2006). The crude fat of these seeds show that they will be a good source of fat which provides a major portion of man’s energy. The crude protein of these seeds 42.80% & 33.40% are higher than some tropical tree seeds, breadnut 19.25% (Oshodi et al., 1999), Bombcopsis glabra 16.56% (Olaofe et al., 2006) benniseed 22.5% (Oshodi et al., 1999) and locust bean 24.1% (Adeyeye et al., 2002). The high protein content of these seeds show that they would be useful as alternative source of protein in livestock feeding and also in man, especially in Nigeria where the scarcity and the cost of the conventionally used plant protein sources have nearly paralyzed most of the industries. The value of the ash 4.51% & 4.30% in these seeds show that they may have a reasonable quantity of mineral elements for building healthy body and proper functioning of body tissues. The considerable amount of crude fibre 3.56% & 6.35% in these seeds show that they will enhance easy movement of bolus in the large intestine. Relatively high energy values 1776 & 1634mg/100g of Albzia lebbeck and Daiella oliveri seeds indicate that they are concentrated sources of energy and within the recommended energy dietary allowances for children (FAO, 1990).

Table 2 presents the mineral composition of the seeds. The most abundant minerals are K (540 & 680mg/100g), Mg (366 & 168mg/100g), Ca (320 & 263mg/100g), P (420 & 384mg/100g) and Fe (14.60 & 26.4mg/100g). The observation that K is the most abundant mineral element is consistent with the observation of Olaofe and Sanni (1988) and Oshodi et al, (1999) who reported K to be the most abundant mineral in Nigerian agricultural products. High amount of calcium, potassium and magnesium (as macro elements) may help to lower the blood pressure (Ranhotra et al., 1998). Several clinical studies have shown potassium, magnesium and calcium to be effective pressure lowering agents (Osborne et al., 1996); Zewel, 1977) hence consumption of these seeds flour may help achieve this purpose

The iron content of the seeds flour are 14.6 & 26.4mg/100g. This shows that these seeds flour are very rich in Fe. Iron is very important for the formation of haemoglobin and normal functioning of the central nervous system (Vyas and Chandra, 1984).The iron contents of these seeds are higher than that of African pear 6.41mg/100g (Ibanga and Okon, 2009), Triticum durum flour 4.93mg/100g (Adeyeye and Aye, 2005) that of locust bean 1.9mg/100g (Adeyeye et al., 2002) and that of chickpea seed 7.72mg/100g. But the values are lower than that of Bombcopsis glabra 30.0mg/100g (Olaofe et al., 2006).

The Ca/P and Ca/Mg weight ratios are 0.76, 0.68 and 1.56 respectively. The values are low when compared with the recommended 1.0 and 2.2 respectively (NRC, 1989). The low values of Ca/Mg and Ca/P may be due to the low calcium content or high content of phosphorus of the seeds flours. Ca, P and Mg are important in the formation of bones and teeth as well as in controlling the level of Ca in the blood of animals (NRC, 1989; Osborne and Voogt, 1978). The calcium supplementation in the diet based on these seeds flour may be necessary to prevent Ca deficiency diseases like rickets.

Table 2 also presents other antinutritional factors in the seed flour. The oxalate content of the seeds are low (0.14 & 0.19mg/100g) when compared with that of Chinese gourd 1.48mg/100g. Oxalic acid has the ability to bind some divalent metals such as Ca and Mg and has therefore been suspected of interfering with the metabolism of these minerals. According to Blood and Henderson (1974), the ingestion of an excessive amount of oxalate could cause gastrointestinal irritation, blockage of the renal tubules by calcium oxalate crystals, muscular weakness or paralysis. Plants generally tend to accumulate high oxalate levels during the early stages of growth (Aletor, 1993). We are not expecting any nutritional discomfort with the level of oxalate in these seeds.

Polyphenols and tannins in legumes are known to inhibit the activities of digestive enzymes (Jambunathan and Singh, 1981) and nutritional effects are mainly related to their interraction with protein and minerals. They also reduce the absorption of nutrients such as vitamin B₁₂ (Linier, 1989). Tannin-protein complexes are insoluble and this decreases the protein digestibility (Carnovale  et al.,   1991).  The concentrations of polyphenols for Albizia lebbeck are 0.16 and 0.49%. These are lower than that of mucuna species which ranges from 4.34 to 7.75 (Adebowale et al., 2005) and that reported for conventional legume Vigina radiate 1 .45%.The concentration of tannic acid 0.65 & 1.22% for the seeds flour are lower than that of chickpea seed 4.88% (Tarek, 2002).

Phytates (hexaphosphate of myo-inositol) are common antinutrients in plant seeds. They chelate di-and trivalent mineral ions, such as Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺ and Fe³⁺ resulting in reduced bioavailability of trace minerals to consumers (Duffus and Duffus, 1991). Phytate concentrations of these seeds flour are 3.83 & 7.13%. These values are higher than that of mucuna species 1.23% to 2.56% (Adebowale et al., 2003) and that of sesbania seeds 1.89% to 2.37% (Hossain and Becker, 2001).

The saponins are diverse group of compounds containing an aglycone linked to one or more biological effects in animals including erythrocyte haemolysis, depressed growth, reduced feed intake and effect on nutrient absorption and bile acid metabolism (Cheecke, 1996). The concentrations of saponin for these seeds are 0.53 & 3.27% which are in close agreement with that of mucuna seeds which ranges from 0.52 to 3.0 (Adebowale et al., 2005) but higher than that of sesbania seeds 0.50-1.46% (Hossain and Becker, 2001).

It has been known for a long time that a wide variety of plants are potentially toxic because they contain glycosides from which hydrogen cyanide may be released by hydrolysis (Conn, 1979) Hydrolysis occurs quite rapidly when the ground plant is cooked in water, and most of the liberated hydrogen cyanide is lost by volatilization. The concentrations of cyanide in these seeds are 0.093 & 0.42% which are lower than the values for kidney bean 2.0% and garden pea 2.3% (Montgomery, 1969).   These results show that Albizia lebbeck and Daniellia oliveri seeds contain minimum levels of antinutritional factors which the body can accommodate and these can also be reduced by boiling. According to Fagbemi et al, (2005), processing especially boiling can effectively reduce the antinutritional factors.

Table 3 presents the results of Ca, Zn, Phytate (Phy), Phy: Zn, Ca: phy, phytinphosphorus and Ca x Phy/Zn. Oberleas and Harland (1981) showed that foods with a molar ratio of Phy:Zn less than 10 showed adequate availability of Zn and problems were encountered when the value was greater than 15. In Table 4.3, the Phy:Zn ratios are shown for all the seeds flour, the values were less than 10 which indicate adequate availability of Zn.

Also phytic acid has been observed to have markedly decreased Ca bioavailability and the Ca: Phy molar ratio has been proposed as an indicator of Ca bioavailability. The critical molar ratio of Ca:Phy is reported to be 6.1 (Oladimeji, 2000). The molar ratio of Ca;Phy obtained for Albizia lebbeck and Daniellia oliveri are 1379 and 636. These values are much, much greater than reported critical molar ratio of Ca:Phy, indicating that absorption of calcium would not be affected by phytate in the seeds flour.

Ellis et al, (1987) and Davies and Warrignton (1986) indicated that the ratio of Ca x Phy/Zn is a better predictor of Zn availability and that if the values were greater than 0.5mol/kg, there would be interferences with   the availability of Zn. For Albizia lebbeck and Daniellia oliveri are seeds flour the Ca x Phy/Zn value is less than 0.5, which means that there would not be interferences in the availability of Zn. Ekpedeme et al, (2000) reported that high levels of anti-nutrients, such as oxalate, phytic acid and HCN, are known to be very poisonous to humans. Since the results indicated that the seeds flour have low amount of phytates, (1.2 & 0.22 phytin phoshorus), the bioavailability of essential dietary minerals, especially calcium and zinc were assured.

The total phosphorus of Albizia lebbeck and Daniellia oliveri 420 & 384mg/100g are higher than that of Chinese bottle gourd (Lagenaria  siceraria) 51mg/100g (Olaofe and Adeyeye, 2009). Also the value of phytinphosphorus 1.2 & 0.22 for the seeds flour are lower than that of Chinese bottle gourd. This means that only 1.2 & 0.22total phosphorus were linked to phytin for Albizia lebbeck and Daniellia oliveri respectively. The nutritional implication of high phytin phosphorus rests on the fact that monogastric animals lack phytase, which can break down the phytin to release phosphorus for utilization (Olaofe and Adeyeye, 2009). It means that with the low values of phytinphosphorus in these seeds flour, monogastric animal taking them will have the phosphorus released for utilization.

References

1. Adebowale, Y. A., Adeyemi, A. and Oshodi, A. A. (2005). Variability in physicochemical, nutritional and antinutritional attributes of six Mucuna species. Food Chem. 89: 37 – 48.
2. Adeyeye, E. I., Ipinmoroti, K. O. and Oguntokun, M. O. (2002). Chemical Composition and Functional Properties of the African locust bean (Parkia biglobbosa) seeds. Pala. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 45(1): 25 – 33.
3. Adeyeye E. I. and Aye, P. A. (2005). Chemical Composition and the effect of salts on the food properties of Triticum durum wholemeal flour. Pala. J. Nutr. (4)3: 187 – 196.
4. Aiseigbu, J. E. (1989). Some biochemical evaluation of fluted pumkin seeds. J. Sci. Food Agric. (40): 151 – 155.
5. Aletor, V. A. (1993). Allelo chemicals in plant food and feeding stuffs (1) Nutritional, biochemical and psychopathological aspects in animal production J. veterinary and Human Toxicology 35(1) 57 – 67.
6. Amoo, I. A., Adebayo, O. T. and Oyeleye A. O. (2006). Chemical evaluation of winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) pitonga cherries (Eugennia uniflora) and orchid fruit (Orchid fruit myristica). African J. Food Agric. Nutr. Develop Vol. 6:24 – 31.
7. AOAC (1995). Official Methods of Analysis, 15th edn, Washington D. C. Assoication of Analytical chemists.
8. Aremu, M. O., Olaofe, O. and Akintayo, E. T. (2006). Compositional evalution of cowpea (Vigria unguiculata) and scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineou) varieties grown in Nigeria. J. Food Agric. Env. 4(2):39 – 43.
9. Balogun, E. A. and Adebayo, J. O. (2009). Research Article on effect of ethanolic extract of Daniellia oliveri leaves on some cardiovascular indices in rats. Pharmacognosy magaxine. ISSN 0973 – 1296: 1-7.
10. Becker, R., Sayre, R. N. and Saunders, R. M. (1984). Semiarid legume crops as protein resources. J. Am. oil Chem. Soc. 61: 931 – 938.
11. Blood, D. C., and Henderson, J. A. (1974).  Veterinary Medicine, 4th edn., Baillier Tindal, London: 84 – 86.
12. Carnovale, E., Lugaro, E, and Marconi, E. (1991). Protein quality and antinutritional factors in wild and cultivated species of Vigna spp.Plant Foods for Hum. Nutr. 41(1):11 – 20.
13. Cheecke, P. R. (1996). Biological effects of feed and forage saponins and their impacts on animal production. Advances in experimental Biology: New York, Plenum Press. 405: 337 – 385.
14. Conn, E. E. (1979). Cyanogenic Glycosides, In: Biochemistry and Nutrition IA, Neuberg, A. and T. H. Jukes (eds). University Park Press, Baltimore: 21 – 43.
15. Davies, N. T. and Warrington, S. (1986). The phytic acid, minerals, trace elements, protein and moisture content of U.K, Asian immigrant foods. Hum. Nutr. Appl. Nutr. 40A: 49 – 59.
16. Duffus, C. M. and Duffus, J. S. (1991). In F. J. D’Mello, C. M. Duffus and J. H. Dufus (Edn). Toxic substances in crop plant. Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry: 1 – 21.
17. Ekpedeme, U. A., Bassey, A. N. and Ekaete, U. E. (2000).  Minerals and antinutrients in fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) Food Chem. 70:235.
18. Ellis, R., Kelsay, J. L., Reynolds, R. D., Morris, E. R., Moser, P. B. and Frazier, C. W. (1987). Phytate:Zinc and Phytate x Calcium: Zinc millimolar ratios in self selected diets of Americans, Asian, Indians and Nepalese J. Am. Diets Assoc. 87: 1043 – 1047.
19. Fagbemi, T. N., Oshodi, A. A. and Ipinmoroti, K. O. (2005). Processing effects on some antinutritional factors and invitro multi enzyme protein digestibility of three tropical seeds, breadnut (Atrocarpus altilis) cashewnut (Anarcardium occidentalis) and fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentale) Pak. J. Nutr. 4(4): 250 – 256.
20. FAO/WHO (1990). Protein quality evaluation. In report of joint FAO/WHO expert consultation. FAO Food and Nutr: 72 – 74.
21. Hossain, M. A. and Becker, B. (2001). Nutritive value and antinutritive factors in different varieties of sesbania seeds and their morphological fractions. Food Chem. 73: 421 – 431.
22. Hedge, N. and Reward, L. (1981). Psyllids attack on Albizia lebbeck bath. In: India NFTRR 6:43 – 44.
23. Ibanga, O. I. and Okan, D. E. (2009). Minerals and anti-nutrients in two varieties of African pear (Dacryodes edulis) J. Food Techol 7 (4): 106 – 110.
24. Ige, M. M., Ogunsua, A. O. and Oke, O. L. (1994). Functional properties of the proteins of some Nigerian oil seeds, conphor seeds and three varieties of melon seeds J. Agric. Food Chem. 32: 822 – 825.
25. Keay, R. W. J., Onochie, C. F. A. and Stanfield, D. P. (1964). Nigerian Trees, Nigerian National Press Ltd Apapa, Department of Forest Resreach, Ibadan: 65 – 66.
26. Jambunathan, R. and Singh, U. (1981). Grain quality of pigeon. In proceeding of International Workshop on pigeon pea, Vol. 1 ICRISAT, Hyderabad, Andra Pradesh, india 15 – 19 December, 1980.
27. Liener, I. E. (1983). Toxic constitutents in legumes. In Chemistry and Biochemistry of legumes. Arora S. K. ed. Edward Arnold, London. 217 – 257.
28. Liener, I. E. (1989). Antinutritional factors in legume seeds. State of art. Inter. J. Huisain, A. F. B. Vander Poel and I. E. Linder (eds), Recent advances in research in antinutritional factors in legume seeds Wageningen: Pudoc. 6 – 14.
29. Monoago, C. C. and Unwakwe, A. A. (2009). Proximate Composition and In-Vitro Anti Sickling property of Nigerian Cyperus esculentus (Tiger Hut sedge) Trees for Life J. 4(2):616 – 620.
30. Montgomery, R. D. (1969). In: Toxic Constituents of plant foodstuffs. I. E. Liener, ed. Academic Press, New York: 143 – 157.
31. National Research Council (NRC) (1989). Recommended Dietary Allowances 10^th edition. National Academy Press. Wasington D. C. U.S.A.
32. Nelson, T. S., Ferrara, L. W. and Stover, N. L. (1968). Phytate phosphorus content of feed ingredients derived from plants. Poul. Sci. 47:1372 – 1378.
33. Nkafamiya, I. I., Manji, A. J., Modibbo, U. U. and Umaru, H. A. (2006). Biochemical evaluation of Cassipourea congoensis (Tunti) and Nuclea latiflokia (Luzzi) fruits. Africa J. on Biotechnol. 6(19):2461 – 2463.
34. Nwokolo, E. N. and Bragg, D. B. (1977). Influence of phytic acid and crude fibre on the availability of minerals from four protein supplements in growing chicks. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 57:475 – 477.
35. O’Dell, B. L. and Savage, J. E. (1960). Effect of phytic acid on zinc availability Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 103: 304 – 305.
36. Obelease, D. and Harland, B. F. (1981). Phytate content of Foods: Effect on dietary zinc bioavailbility J. Am. Diet Assoc. 79:433 – 436.
37. Oladimeji, M. O., Akindahunsi, A. A. and Okafor, A. F. (2000). Investigation of the bioavailability of Zinc and Calcium from some tropical tubers. Nahrung 44:136 -137.
38. Olaofe, O. and Sanni, C. O. (1988). Mineral contents of grain and baby foods. J of Sci. Food and Agric. 45:191 – 194.
39. Olaofe, O., Akintayo, E. T. Adeyeye, E. I. and Adubiaro, H. O. (2006). Proximate composition and functional properties of Bulma cotton (Bombcopsis glabra) seeds. Egypt J. Food Sci. (34): 81 – 90.
40. Olaofe, O. and Adeyeye, E. I. (2009). Characteristic of Chinese bottle gouard (Lagenaria siceraria) seed flour. Oriental Journal of Chemistry Vol. 25, 4: 905 -912.
41. Osborne, D. R. and Voogt, P. (1978). The Analysis of Nutrients in foods. Academic Press, London.
42. Osborne, C. G., Mctyrc, R. B., Duek, J., Roche, K., Scheuplein, R, Silverstein, B., Winberg, M. S. and Salkeld, A. A. (1996). Evidence for the relationship of calcium to blood pressure. Nutr. Rev. 54:365 -381.
43. Oshodi, A. J. L., Ogungenle, H. N. and Oladimeji N. O. (1999). Chemical Composition, Nutritionally valuable minerals and functional properties of benniseed (Sesanum rediatum), pearl millet (Perntiisetim typhoides) and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) flours. Int J. of Food Sci. and Nutr. 50:325 -331.
44. Oyenuga, V. A. (1968). Nigerian Food and Feedings stuffs. Their chemistry and Nutritive value. Nigeria University Press. Ebadan. 99
45. Ranhotra, G. S., Gelroth, J. A., Leinen, S. O., Vmas, M. A. and Lorciz, K. J.
46. (1998). Nutritional profile of some edible plants from Mexico. J. Food Comp. and Analysis. 11: 298 – 304.
47. Tarek, A. E. (2002). Nutritive composition and nutritional factors of chick peas (Cicer arietinm /.) undergoing different cooking methods and germination plant foods for Hm. Nutr. 57 : 83 – 97.
48. Vogel, A. T. (1962). Quantitative Inorganic Analysis. London, Longman: 802 -899.
49. Vyas, D. and Chandra, R. K. (1984). In iron Nutrition in infancy and childhood Nestle Nutrition Edition: 21 – 25.
50. Zewel, M. B. (1977). Dietary pattern and hypertension. The DASH study-Nutritional Rev. 55 :303 – 305.

---

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.