Enhancing Cannabis Extraction Efficiency and Sustainability through Quantum Computing: A Review

Introduction

Overview of Cannabis sativa as a medicinal plant

Cannabis sativa, also known as marijuana or hemp, is a versatile plant with a wide range of applications and significant medicinal potential. It has been used for centuries in various cultures for its therapeutic properties, and modern research has shed light on its pharmacological effects ^{1, 2}. From nutritional supplements to textiles, building materials, body care products, food, and medicines, Cannabis sativa offers a plethora of uses ¹.

The plant has several bioactive compounds, including cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids, which contribute to its favorable health effects ³. The most well-known and studied cannabinoid is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which handles the psychoactive effects of cannabis⁶ . However, another prominent compound, cannabidiol (CBD), has gained attention for its potential therapeutic benefits without causing intoxication.

Medicinally, Cannabis sativa has been used to treat various conditions throughout history. It has been employed for relieving rheumatism, epilepsy, asthma, pain, and managing sexually transmitted diseases, among other ailments ⁴. In recent years, scientific research has focused on its potential applications in chronic pain management, neurological disorders, such as epilepsy, and its anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and antioxidant effects ^2,3.

It is important to note that while Cannabis sativa holds promise as a medicinal plant, caution should be exercised about its use. Different strains and formulations can have varying effects, and individual responses may also differ. Therefore, it is crucial to approach cannabis as a medicine under proper medical guidance and adhere to evidence-based practices ⁵.

Historical and cultural significance of cannabis use

Cannabis use holds a significant historical and cultural importance that spans centuries. Its popularity has grown, with notable increases among college students ⁷ and the general population ⁸. Throughout history, cannabis has been valued for its medicinal and recreational purposes. Ancient Chinese records mention its analgesic properties, while Indian culture has long associated it with spirituality and rituals. Positive beliefs about cannabis effects have contributed to the formation of a cannabis culture⁹. Societal attitudes and legal frameworks have influenced its perception, leading to periods of acceptance and stigmatization. Understanding the historical and cultural context of cannabis use is essential in appreciating its current significance. The enduring appeal of cannabis, its association with rituals, counterculture, and changing societal views have shaped its position in society.

Importance of studying cannabis extracts for therapeutic benefits

Studying cannabis extracts for therapeutic benefits is significant due to their potential in providing relief and managing various health conditions. By understanding the extraction methods used in the cannabis industry, scientists can ensure the production of high-quality and effective cannabis extracts¹⁰. Research has shown that cannabis-based medications primarily act through the activation of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2) in the body ¹¹. Two of the primary receptor types that comprise the endocannabinoid system, a sophisticated cell-signaling mechanism in the human body, are cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors. These receptors, which are the main targets for cannabis constituents including tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), play a critical role in regulating a number of physiological processes⁷⁸.

CB1 receptor: The brain and spinal cord, which make up the central nervous system, are the main locations of CB1 receptors, while they can also be found in some peripheral tissues. In the brain, they are the most prevalent kind of cannabinoid receptor⁷⁸. Compounds such as THC can activate CB1 receptors, which can result in a variety of effects such as mood swings, increased hunger, pain modulation, and changed perception. THC’s interaction with CB1 receptors is primarily responsible for its psychoactive effects.

CB2 receptor: Peripheral tissues, particularly those of the immune system, are the primary sites for CB2 receptors. They are also present in the skin, bones, and spleen, among other areas of the body. The regulation of pain, inflammation, and immunological responses is greatly influenced by CB2 receptors. The intoxicating effects linked to CB1 receptor activation are less likely to occur when CB2 receptors are activated⁷⁸.

Cannabis sativa, a widely recognized medicinal plant, has been historically employed for the treatment of a range of conditions, including rheumatism, epilepsy, asthma, skin burns, pain, sexually transmitted diseases, difficulties during child labor, postpartum hemorrhage, and gastrointestinal issues ¹². However, further scientific investigation is necessary to elucidate the specific mechanisms by which cannabis extracts exert their therapeutic effects and to determine optimal dosage and administration methods for different conditions.

Studying cannabis extracts allows researchers to explore their potential in addressing unmet medical needs, offering alternative treatment options for patients who may not respond adequately to existing therapies. Moreover, understanding the therapeutic benefits of cannabis extracts can contribute to the development of novel medications with improved efficacy, reduced side effects, and potentially broader applications.

Phytochemistry of Cannabis sativa

Identification and characterization of major cannabinoids

Identification and characterization of major cannabinoids is an important area of research due to the growing interest in the potential health benefits of cannabis and its derivatives. Cannabinoids are a class of chemical compounds that are found in the cannabis plant. The two most well-known cannabinoids are tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). THC is the primary psychoactive compound in cannabis, while CBD is non-psychoactive and has been shown to have potential therapeutic benefits¹³.

There are several analytical techniques used for the identification and characterization of major cannabinoids. These include gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) ¹³. These techniques allow for the separation, identification, and quantification of individual cannabinoids in complex biological matrices such as plant material, blood, and urine¹⁴.

In addition to these analytical techniques, researchers also use various extraction methods to isolate cannabinoids from plant material. These include solvent extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, and microwave-assisted extraction. Once the cannabinoids have been extracted, they can be further purified and characterized using techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy ¹³.

In conclusion, the identification and characterization of major cannabinoids is a rapidly evolving field with many exciting developments. Researchers are using advanced analytical techniques to better understand the chemical properties of these compounds and their potential health benefits.

Cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): key constituents

Cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are two key constituents of the cannabis plant. They are both phytocannabinoids but differ in their effects. THC is the primary psychoactive constituent of cannabis while CBD is non-psychoactive. There has been considerable scientific attention devoted to these common, but very different, cannabinoids¹⁵.

Recent loosening of legal restrictions on cannabis and its chemical constituents has led to rapid proliferation and wide availability of products containing CBD. Although using pure CBD does not result in THC-like intoxication, it is not risk-free. Research is ongoing to clarify the legitimate therapeutic effects of CBD and to assure the quality, safety, and efficacy of CBD products¹⁶.

THC, on the other hand, is known for its psychoactive effects and is responsible for the “high” associated with cannabis use. It binds to cannabinoid receptors in the brain and can produce feelings of euphoria, relaxation, and altered perception. However, it can also have negative side effects such as anxiety and paranoia in some individuals¹⁷.

Both CBD and THC have potential therapeutic uses and are the subject of ongoing research. They are key constituents of the cannabis plant and have attracted significant interest from the scientific community¹⁸.

Lesser-known cannabinoids and their potential therapeutic effects

Lesser-known cannabinoids are naturally occurring compounds isolated from the Cannabis sativa plant. While delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are the two best-known cannabinoids, there are over a hundred other phytocannabinoids, each having their own unique pharmacological profile, biological effects and thus therapeutic potential¹⁹.

Research has shown that cannabinoids have therapeutic applications for major depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and schizophrenia ^20,21. However, further experimental study is required to highlight the benefits and risks of cannabinoid use in the management of these illnesses²¹.

Terpenes and other secondary metabolites in cannabis

Terpenes and other secondary metabolites in cannabis have been the subject of much research in recent years. Terpenes are a large and diverse class of organic compounds that are produced by a variety of plants, including cannabis. They are responsible for the characteristic aroma and flavor of many plants, including cannabis. In addition to terpenes, cannabis also produces other secondary metabolites such as cannabinoids and flavonoids ²².

These secondary metabolites have been found to have a wide range of therapeutic effects. For example, some terpenes have been found to have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and sedative effects. Cannabinoids such as THC and CBD have also been found to have a wide range of therapeutic effects, including pain relief, anti-inflammatory effects, and anti-anxiety effects²³.

Research into the therapeutic potential of these secondary metabolites is ongoing, and new discoveries are being made all the time. As our understanding of these compounds grows, it is likely that we will continue to find new ways to use them to improve human health and well-being.

Traditional and ethnomedicinal use of cannabis

Cultural practices and historical use of cannabis extracts

Cannabis has been used for recreation and in traditional medicine in Africa for centuries since its introduction by Arab traders from India [24]. Though Cannabis contains a variety of phytochemicals, its psychotropic activity is attributed mainly to the psychoactive compound Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-9-THC). Additionally, cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) are two main non-psychoactive cannabinoids present in cannabis/marijuana. Cannabis leaves are predominantly used in herbal preparations to manage both human and animal ailments in Africa and elsewhere. Among humans, cannabis leaves are used to treat over 20 ailments, mainly including asthma, measles, diabetes, dysentery, tuberculosis, cancer, cough, malaria, also as an abortifacient. In animals, Cannabis is used to manage over 15 ailments, with the common ones being: East Cost fever, heartwater, pneumonia, dysentery, and trypanosomiasis. Pharmacological research has highlighted the benefit of Cannabis in managing chronic diseases like cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and diabetes mellitus ²⁵. Despite its medicinal uses, prolonged use of unprescribed Cannabis in humans’ results in social, psychological, physiological, and medical risks. This calls for regulated use and further pharmacological studies to show efficacious but safe dosages.

Cannabis sativa L. (hereafter Cannabis) is one of the most versatile plants known to man and has traditional roots among many cultures around the world [24]. Because of its exceptional phenotypic plasticity, Cannabis has played a key role in various aspects of human life. Even though people have used it for thousands of years, details about Cannabis origin are still not well known. The latest studies place its origin in Central Asia²⁵.

Traditional medicinal applications across diverse cultures

Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of years across diverse cultures. It has gone with the development of human culture from its very beginnings and can be found in the healing traditions of cultures throughout Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas.

One example of its traditional use can be found in Bangladesh²⁶, where folk medicine practitioners have been using Cannabis sativa to treat a variety of ailments such as sleep-associated problems, neuropsychiatric and CNS problems, infections and respiratory problems, rheumatism, gastrointestinal issues, gynecological issues, cancer, sexual issues and other ailments including hypertension, headache, itchiness, increased bile secretion, abortifacient properties, dandruff, fever and urinary problems.

Another example can be found in the CANNUSE database ²⁷ which holds data on traditional uses of Cannabis. Over two thirds of this data are made up of Cannabis medicinal uses – most of them human medicinal uses – being treatments for 210 human ailments.

These are just a few examples of the traditional and ethnomedicinal use of cannabis for medicinal applications across diverse cultures. There is a wealth of information available on this topic in books such as “Marijuana Medicine: A World Tour of the Healing and Visionary Powers of Cannabis” by Christian Rätsch and journals such as the Journal of Cannabis Research and the Journal of Ethnopharmacology ²⁸.

Exploration of traditional knowledge in modern research

Cannabis has been used for centuries in traditional medicine and recreation. Its leaves are predominantly used in herbal preparations to manage both human and animal ailments. Among humans, cannabis leaves are used to treat over 20 ailments, including asthma, measles, diabetes, dysentery, tuberculosis, cancer, cough, malaria, and also as an abortifacient. In animals, Cannabis is used to manage over 15 ailments²⁴.

In Bangladesh, folk medicine practitioners (FMPs) from different districts have been using Cannabis sativa to treat cited ailments (table 1) ²⁶. The higher frequency expresses the vast use of cannabis sativa on the particular problems or ailments. Sleep-associated problems, neuropsychiatric/CNS problems, and infections and respiratory problems fall under frequency 5. Added that, rheumatism, gastrointestinal problems, and gynecological problems fall under frequency 4. And the rest are under frequency 1.

Table 1. Frequency of ailments treated with Cannabis sativa,

Ailments	Frequency
Sleep-associated problems	5
Neuropsychiatric/CNS problems	5
Infections and respiratory problems	5
Rheumatism	4
Gastrointestinal problems	4
Gynecological problems	4
Cancer	1
Sexual problems	1
Hypertension	1
Headache	1
Itch	1
Increases bile secretion	1
Abortifacient	1
Dandruff	1
Fever	1
Urinary problems	1

Therapeutic potential of cannabis extracts

Efficacy of cannabis extracts in treating various medical conditions

Cannabis sativa L. is a pharmacologically important annual plant. The distribution of this plant parts (leaf, root etc.) has major contribution for the production of cannabis sativa (table 2). Most productive part of the cannabis plant is leaf as it’s 53.8% are being used for the production of the cannabis sativa. Moreover, it produces bioactive phytocannabinoids and other secondary metabolites that have proved therapeutic potential for a wide variety of human health conditions ²⁷. The last two decades have seen a dramatic shift in cannabis legislation around the world. Cannabis products are now widely available and commercial production and use of phytocannabinoid products is rapidly growing²⁸. However, this growth is outpacing the research needed to elucidate the therapeutic efficacy of the myriad of chemical compounds found primarily in the flower of the female cannabis plant.

Table 2: Distribution of plant parts use for Cannabis sativa

Plant parts	Percentage (%)
Leaf	53.8
Root	23.0
Seed	7.7
Flower/Inflorescence	3.8
Resin	3.8
All parts	3.8

 

In general, data support a role for cannabis/cannabinoids in pain, seizure disorders, appetite stimulation, muscle spasticity, and treatment of nausea/vomiting²⁹. Given the biological activities of the cannabinoids, there may be utility in treatment of central nervous system disorders (such as neurodegenerative diseases, PTSD, and addiction) or for the treatment of cancer³⁰. However, those data are much less compelling.

On balance, there are reasons to support the potential use of medical cannabis and cannabis extract (Δ9-THC-dominant or CBD-dominant), but much more careful research is needed ³⁰.

Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects

Cannabis extracts have shown potential for analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. Several studies have investigated the use of cannabis extracts in the treatment of conditions such as neuropathic pain and acute or chronic inflammation. One study discusses the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of formulated full-spectrum cannabis extract in the treatment of neuropathic pain associated with multiple sclerosis³¹. Another journal discusses the therapeutic potential of cannabis and cannabinoids, saying that cannabis preparations exert many therapeutic effects including antispastic, analgesic, antiemetic, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory actions³².

While a plethora of studies have examined the biochemical effects of purified THC and/or CBD, only a few have focused on the effects of full-spectrum cannabis plant extract. So, studies using purified THC or CBD may not accurately reflect the potential health benefits of full-spectrum cannabis extracts. Indeed, the cannabis plant produces a wide range of cannabinoids, terpenes, flavonoids, and other bioactive molecules which are likely to contribute to the different biological effects. The presence of all these bioactive molecules in cannabis extracts has garnered much attention of late especially on their potential role in the treatment of neuropathic pain associated with multiple sclerosis.

It is important to note that while cannabis extracts have shown potential for therapeutic use, further research is needed to fully understand their effects and potential benefits. Additionally, it is important to consult with a healthcare professional before using cannabis extracts for medicinal purposes.

Anticonvulsant and neuroprotective properties

The therapeutic potential of cannabis extracts for anticonvulsant and neuroprotective properties has been a topic of interest in recent years. Cannabis and its extracts have been explored for their potential health benefits, including their potential use in preventing selected neurodegenerative diseases and possible amelioration of cognitive impairments.

Cannabis-based medicines have shown safety, efficacy, and consistency sufficient for regulatory approval in spasticity in multiple sclerosis (MS), and in Dravet and Lennox-Gastaut Syndromes (LGS)³³. Research has also examined the potential of cannabis-based medicines in the treatment of other neurological disorders such as intractable epilepsy, brain tumors, Parkinson disease (PD), Alzheimer disease (AD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI)/chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE).

While there is still much research to be done on the topic, the potential benefits of cannabis extracts for anticonvulsant and neuroprotective properties are promising³⁴.

Potential applications in mental health disorders

Cannabis extracts have shown potential therapeutic applications in mental health disorders. Research has found that CBD and CBD-containing compounds such as nabiximols were helpful in alleviating psychotic symptoms and cognitive impairment in patients with a variety of conditions ³⁵. Several studies supplied evidence of effectiveness in the treatment of cannabis withdrawal and moderate to severe cannabis use disorder.

Another area of research has focused on the role of the endocannabinoid system, which appears deregulated in psychiatric patients ³⁶. This system is recognized as a fundamental modulator of many physiological processes, including neurodevelopment, emotional states, stress responses, and cognition.

While there is growing evidence supporting the potential therapeutic uses of cannabis extracts in mental health disorders, more research is needed to fully understand their effectiveness and safety ³⁷.

Extraction methods for cannabis extracts

Overview of conventional extraction techniques

Extraction methods for cannabis extracts are used to concentrate target components for product development. There are several conventional extraction techniques that have been applied to extract phytochemicals from Cannabis using various solvents³⁸. One such method is solvent extraction, which is the most common method for cannabis plants. Although solventless and hydrodynamic extraction are known for their high yield and feasibility, more investigation is needed in these areas.

Regarding the drying process, hang-drying is the most convenient method; however, it may be substituted by freeze-drying soon. There are important parameters that can affect the yield of the cannabis extract such as mean particle size, size distribution, temperature, rate of agitation, and extraction time [39]. Some common cannabinoids and their molecular formulas are given in table 3.

Table 3: Common cannabinoids and their molecular formulas [40]

Cannabinoid name	Usual abbreviation	Molar mass (g mol-1)	Molecular formula
(-)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol	∆9-THC	314.472	C21H30O2
(-)-trans-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol	∆8-THC	314.472	C21H30O2
(-)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A	THCA	358.482	C22H30O4
Cannabidiol	CBD	314.472	C21H30O2
Cannabidiolic acid	CBDA	358.482	C22H30O4
Cannabinol	CBN	310.440	C21H26O2
Cannabinolic acid	CBNA	354.450	C22H26O4
Cannabigerol	CBG	316.488	C21H32O2
Cannabigerolic acid	CBGA	360.498	C22H32O4

 

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) for efficient extraction

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is a clean and cost-effective method of extracting cannabinoids from cannabis. Carbon dioxide supercritical fluid extraction (CO₂ SFE) is one such method. A study published in Scientific Reports in 2020 [40] used design of experiment methodologies to optimize the CO₂ SFE extraction process for medicinal cannabis bud material at a scale of one kg per extraction. Key variables investigated were CO₂ flow rate, extraction time, and extraction pressure. The study found that CO₂ flow rate had the most influence on the overall yield and recovery of key cannabinoids, particularly CBD. The highest extraction weight of 71g (7.1%) was obtained under high flow rate 150g (about 5.29 oz)/min, with long extraction time (600min) at high pressure (320bar). This method also gave the best recoveries of THC and CBD.

Another journal [38], mentions that green approaches such as SFE are used to displace conventional methods of pressing and organic solvent extractions. These procedures decrease environmental impacts and reduce toxic residue on products by using supercritical fluids.

Comparison of extraction methods in terms of yield and purity

Extraction methods for cannabis extracts vary in terms of yield and purity. One of the most common methods for cannabis plants is solvent extraction. Solvent extraction involves using a solvent to dissolve the desired compounds from the plant material. The solvent is then evaporated, leaving behind the extracted compounds. Solventless and hydrodynamic extraction are also known for their high yield and feasibility, but more investigation is needed in these areas.

Another method for extracting cannabis extracts is supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). SFE uses supercritical carbon dioxide as a solvent to extract the desired compounds from the plant material. SFE is known for its high yield and purity, but it can be more expensive and complex than other methods ³⁸.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) are also alternative methods that have been proposed for the extraction of cannabis extracts⁴¹. These methods use ultrasound or microwave energy to help the extraction process.

There are several methods for extracting cannabis extracts, each with its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of yield and purity. More research is needed to decide the best method for different applications.

Advances in extraction technology and future prospects

Advances in extraction technology have allowed for more efficient and effective methods of extracting compounds from various materials, including cannabis. These advances have led to the development of new techniques and equipment that can improve the yield and purity of extracted compounds.

One focus in extraction technology is developing green and sustainable methods [38]. This includes using environmentally friendly solvents and techniques that minimize waste and reduce the environmental impact of extraction processes.

In the future, it is likely that we will see continued advancements in extraction technology, leading to even more efficient and effective methods. This could include developing new solvents and techniques and improvements to existing methods. These advancements will likely have a significant impact on a wide range of industries, including pharmaceuticals, food production, and cosmetics.

Standardization and quality control of cannabis extracts

Importance of quality control measures in cannabis research

Quality control measures are essential in cannabis research to ensure consumer safety and mitigate public health risks. Rigorous testing of cannabis derivatives in medicinal and recreational cannabis-based products can help achieve this goal. For example, Canada has implemented stringent quality control and quality assurance measures for all classes of cannabis, which include requirements such as labeling THC and CBD content per product and limiting THC doses ⁴².

Exposure to toxic substances, pathogenic microorganisms, and adulterants such as synthetic compounds that are designed to mimic the effects of phytocannabinoids can result in patient harm or confound research efforts ⁴³. Gaps in quality control have resulted in recalls where cannabis for medical purposes is sold, such as in Canada and some U.S states ⁴⁴.

Quality control measures stand for a key safety feature that can enable informed purchasing and provide consumers with necessary information about various cannabis products. As the cannabis market continues to grow, standardized testing and regulation become increasingly important to ensure consumer safety and minimize harms ⁴⁵.

Regulatory considerations and challenges in standardization

As the use of cannabis for medicinal and recreational purposes becomes more widespread, there is a growing need for standardized processes and quality control measures to ensure the safety and efficacy of cannabis products.

One challenge in standardizing and regulating cannabis extracts is the lack of federal legalization in some countries. Where medical cannabis is still illegal, and even in countries where cannabis is only legal at the state level, there are frequent gaps in quality control processes. Federal legalization and implementation of standards of practice for growing and testing cannabis may help overcome these gaps ⁴⁶.

Another challenge is the variability in the composition of cannabis extracts. Cannabis plants can vary widely in their chemical makeup, including the levels of cannabinoids such as THC and CBD. Standardization of testing methods and quality control measures can help ensure that cannabis extracts are accurately labeled and consistent in their composition ⁴⁷.

Overall, regulatory considerations and challenges in standardization for standardization and quality control of cannabis extracts are complex issues that require ongoing research and collaboration between industry, regulators, and researchers.

Analytical techniques for finding cannabinoid content

Some common analytical techniques for finding cannabinoid content include gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). GC is often used with mass spectrometry (MS) or flame ionization detection (FID), while HPLC can be used with MS or ultraviolet (UV) detectors ⁴⁸. These techniques allow for the separation and identification of individual cannabinoids in a sample, allowing for exact quantification.

In addition to these techniques, there are also various sample preparation methods that can be used to extract cannabinoids from cannabis plant material ⁴⁹. These methods can include solvent extraction, solid-phase extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction. The choice of sample preparation method will depend on the specific requirements of the analysis, such as the desired sensitivity and selectivity ⁵⁰.

Overall, the use of analytical techniques for deciding cannabinoid content is essential for ensuring the quality and consistency of cannabis-based products. These techniques supply exact and reliable data that can be used for standardization and quality control purposes ⁵⁰.

Ensuring product consistency and safety

Ensuring product consistency and safety for standardization and quality control of cannabis extracts is a prominent issue that has been discussed in several books and journals. It is imperative that both healthcare providers and patients are educated on all aspects of cannabis treatment, including product safety and quality control ⁵¹. There are a few quality control variables to consider when choosing medical cannabis products including contaminants, microorganisms, and pesticides. Quality control standards reduce exposure to harmful chemicals and contaminants such as pesticides, extraction solvents, microorganisms, diluents, and fillers ⁵². These may be in a wide range of potential products which patients are considering or already using, including dried flower, oils, and concentrated products such as vapes. These are important considerations when selecting cannabis products and should not be overlooked by healthcare providers, patients, and cannabis consumers in general. Healthcare providers should be aware of which products patients are using and carefully inspect labelling ⁵². Quality control is most stringent for products that are obtained from a legal, licensed, and regulated source.

Current research and clinical trials

Overview of recent studies on cannabis extracts for therapeutic purposes

Recent studies and clinical trials have been conducted to analyze the therapeutic use of cannabis extracts. One such study ⁵³ analyzes the current legislation in countries that allow the use of medical cannabis and its impact on clinical trials. The study found that there is still considerable controversy on this topic in the scientific community, particularly concerning the plant species to be used, the pathologies that can be treated, the efficacy and safety of use, the routes of administration, the methods of preparation, the type and dosage of cannabinoids to be used, and the active molecules of interest ⁵⁴.

Another study⁵⁵ aimed to find, characterize, appraise, and organize the current available evidence surrounding therapeutic use of cannabis and cannabinoids using evidence maps. The study found that evidence on medical uses of cannabis is broad but due to methodological limitations, conclusions were weak in most of the assessed comparisons.

These studies provide valuable insights into the current state of research on cannabis extracts for therapeutic purposes. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks associated with their use.

Clinical trials investigating the efficacy and safety of cannabis-based treatments

Clinical trials investigating the efficacy and safety of cannabis-based treatments have been conducted and published in various journals and books. These trials aim to evaluate the potential benefits and risks associated with using cannabis for medical purposes.

One article reviews the evidence from clinical trials and human laboratory studies evaluating the efficacy of CBD as a therapeutic for various medical conditions, including epilepsy, anxiety, pain/inflammation, schizophrenia, various substance use disorders, post-traumatic stress⁵⁴.

One book⁵³ analyzes the current legislation in countries that allow the use of medical cannabis, in relation to the impact that this legislation has had on clinical trials. It also provides an overview of the different legislation in these countries and analyzes the results of clinical trials published in the last 3 years.

These resources supply valuable information on current research and clinical trials investigating the efficacy and safety of cannabis-based treatments. They can be used to gain a better understanding of the potential benefits and risks associated with using cannabis for medical purposes.

Understanding the limitations and challenges of cannabis research

Understanding the limitations and challenges of cannabis research for current research and clinical trials is important for advancing our knowledge of the potential benefits and risks of cannabis use. One of the primary challenges in conducting cannabis research is the regulatory status of cannabis and cannabinoids in the United States. This can make it difficult to obtain study medications and can limit funding and resources for research. Additionally, there are often constraints associated with clinical trials that can make it difficult to conduct research on cannabis.

There are three primary barriers that contribute to the difficulty in initiating research geared toward answering the most pressing public health questions: the US regulatory status of cannabis and cannabinoids, sources for cannabis and cannabinoid study medications, and limited funding and resources to support studies⁵⁶.

Despite these challenges, there is a growing body of research on cannabis and its potential medical uses. By understanding and addressing these limitations and challenges, researchers can continue to advance our knowledge of cannabis and its potential benefits and risks.

Potential constructive collaboration with quantum computing

Introduction to quantum computing and its applications

Quantum computing is a technology that promises to overcome the drawbacks of conventional computing for high density and high-performance applications. It can revolutionize today’s computing world and attract more researchers towards this field. Quantum computers exploit principles of quantum mechanics, such as superposition and entanglement, to be data and perform operations on them. Both principles enable quantum computers to solve specific, complex problems much faster than standard computers⁵⁷.

Some potential application areas of quantum computing include the financial, chemical, pharmaceutical, and automotive sectors. The world’s largest technology companies, such as Google, IBM, Microsoft, Amazon, and Alibaba are already investing billions in research and development of their quantum computing. Governments are also investing in this technology ⁵⁸.

Quantum computing can solve problems currently intractable with classical computers. For example, quantum computers could be used to simulate quantum systems, which could lead to breakthroughs in materials science and drug discovery ⁵⁹. Quantum computers could also be used to solve optimization problems, which have applications in fields such as finance and logistics.

Quantum computers could also have a significant impact on cryptography. Many of the encryption methods used today are because factoring large numbers is exceedingly difficult for classical computers. However, a quantum computer could factor large numbers much more quickly using an algorithm known as Shor’s algorithm ⁶⁰. This means that many of the encryption methods used today could become insecure if a large-scale quantum computer were to be built.

There is still much work to be done before quantum computers become practical for widespread use. Researchers are working on developing new algorithms and error-correction techniques to make quantum computers more robust. There is also ongoing research into developing new hardware technologies to build larger and more powerful quantum computers.

Exploring the potential of quantum computing in cannabis research

Quantum computing can handle certain kinds of computational tasks exponentially faster than today’s conventional computers. This could potentially allow for faster and more exact characterizations of molecular systems than existing quantum chemistry methods. Furthermore, algorithmic developments in quantum machine learning offer interesting alternatives to classical machine learning techniques, which may also be useful for the biochemical efforts involved in early phases of drug discovery⁶¹.

Figure 1 illustrates the different cannabis extraction methods, external factors, drying methods, necessary parameters, solvent classifications and different types of solvents considering for the quantum computing based research for the simulation.

Figure 1: Cannabis extraction methods, external factors, drying methods, necessary parameters, solvent classifications and different types of solvents considering for the quantum computing based simulation 30 Click here to View Figure

In the context of cannabis research, quantum computing could potentially be used to simulate and predict the structure, properties, and behavior of cannabis molecules more effectively than conventional computing can [62]. This could lead to new insights and breakthroughs in our understanding of cannabis and its potential medical uses.

Quantum computing is a novel way to improve the sustainability and efficiency of cannabis extraction, and it can have a number of advantageous effects on the economy and environment. Figure 2 shows some methods that the use of quantum computing in cannabis extraction can lead to sustainability.

Figure 2: Some methods that the use of quantum computing in cannabis extraction can lead to sustainability Click here to View Figure

Quantum simulations for understanding cannabinoid interactions

Quantum simulations can be a powerful tool for understanding the complex interactions between cannabinoids and their receptors. By using advanced computational techniques, scientists can model the dynamics and molecular interactions of cannabinoid receptors, such as CB1 and CB2, to gain a deeper understanding of their function and behavior.

Cannabinoid receptors are part of the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family and are involved in various physiological and homeostatic processes. These pathways include metabolism and hunger, locomotion, memory processing, and the onset of psychoactive effects. In recent decades, it has been uncovered that both endogenous and exogenous ligands and protein-CB1 interactions can elicit specific cellular pathways via biased intracellular signaling ⁶³.

Biased signaling is commenced by inducing various receptor conformations through protein/ligand-based interactions. These receptor conformations promote CB1 coupling with different G-proteins. Coupling to various G-proteins mediates potential therapeutic or adverse side effects. However, the full details on how CB1 controls these pathways and produces its psychotropic effects (upon cannabis consumption) are not fully understood ⁶⁴.

Quantum simulations can help to fill these knowledge gaps by providing detailed models of the interactions between cannabinoids and their receptors⁶⁵. By leveraging advanced computational techniques such as molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations, scientists can gain a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics and molecular interactions involved in cannabinoid signaling.

Overall, quantum simulations can provide valuable insights into the complex interactions between cannabinoids and their receptors. By leveraging advanced computational techniques, scientists can gain a deeper understanding of these interactions and their implications for human health⁶⁶.

Quantum-inspired algorithms for optimizing extraction and synthesis processes

Quantum algorithms have shown great potential in optimizing extraction and synthesis processes, including those related to cannabis. These algorithms leverage the principles of quantum mechanics to perform calculations and simulations that can significantly enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of these processes.

Figure 3. shows the architectural framework for the efficient extraction of cannabis through quantum computing. It is classified into five phases. The detail descriptions of the phases are given below⁷⁹.

Figure 3: Architectural framework for the efficient extraction of cannabis through Quantum Computing (recreate from 79 Click here to View Figure

Phase 1: Quantum state preparation

Creating a quantum system and initialize it for the sustainable quantum computation of the cannabis extraction, is the preliminary phase. It would be also a necessary phase for any other computation like drug discovery and molecular simulation. For controlling the trustworthiness of the quantum state preparation, research is still going on to find the better physical platform including optimize the control parameter rather than qubits or trapped ions.

Phase 2: Entanglement

After the quantum state preparation, the next step is quantum entanglement that allows expeditious and speedy computation. For the processing of the information from the cannabis extraction computation result, for metrology and sensing, and communication, this phase is the secondary steps. Measuring one particle can destroy the entanglement so that it important to develop new technique for the measurement. In this regard, researchers are trying to scaling up the particle numbers of entanglement.

Phase 3 Decoherence

Due to the molecular interaction with environment and other unmanageable factors, the loss of quantum coherence occurs and researchers call it as quantum decoherence. It is quite challenging to keeping entangled states over faraway or for enough time. Researchers are trying to establish decoherence suppression technique to solve this issue. By minimizing this effect and developing better noise models, it will revolutionize the efficient cannabis extraction process.

Phase 4: Quantum error correction

For reliable cannabis extraction computation, quantum error correction is mandatory due to the decoherence. It allows to preserve quantum information. Researchers are working to develop different quantum fault tolerant schemes and improved hybrid quantum error codding with lower percentage of error, and low overhead.

Phase 5: Optimization

To improve the efficiency of cannabis extraction, resource utilization and performance, optimization of the data set is crucial. Research is going on to explore efficient methods by synthesizing and decomposing quantum gates into a minimal set of elementary gates. No only that but also minimizing gate output and depth. Moreover, developing hybrid algorithm as well as revolutionary algorithm, researcher can find out the optimum values for the cannabis extraction.

One notable approach in this field is the use of variational quantum algorithms (VQAs). VQAs utilize parameterized quantum circuits combined with classical optimizers to tackle complex optimization problems⁶⁷. By encoding the optimization task into a parameterized cost function and iteratively updating the circuit parameters, VQAs aim to find the optimal solution.

In the context of cannabis extraction and synthesis, VQAs can be employed to optimize various aspects of the process. For example, they can be used to determine the optimal conditions for extracting specific compounds from cannabis plants, such as cannabinoids and terpenes. By encoding the extraction parameters into the cost function and leveraging the quantum processing capabilities, VQAs can efficiently explore a large parameter space to identify the most effective extraction conditions.

Similarly, VQAs can aid in optimizing the synthesis processes involved in cannabis production. They can assist in designing and optimizing chemical reactions and reaction conditions to maximize the yield of desired compounds or to minimize unwanted by-products. Quantum algorithms can explore different reaction pathways, identify optimal reaction parameters, and even simulate the behavior of complex chemical systems, providing insights that can lead to improved synthesis processes⁶⁵.

It is important to note that while quantum algorithms hold promise for optimizing extraction and synthesis processes, the current state of quantum computing is still in its early stages. Practical implementation of these algorithms on quantum hardware with sufficient qubit resources and low error rates is a significant challenge ⁶⁸. However, advancements in quantum hardware and algorithmic development are rapidly progressing, paving the way for future applications in the cannabis industry and beyond.

In conclusion, quantum algorithms, particularly variational quantum algorithms, offer exciting prospects for optimizing extraction and synthesis processes in the cannabis industry. They have the potential to revolutionize the field by enabling more efficient and sustainable methods for extracting valuable compounds from cannabis plants and optimizing the synthesis of desired compounds. Continued research and development in this area are crucial for realizing the full potential of quantum algorithms in cannabis processing and production.

Future perspectives and challenges

Unexplored areas and potential avenues for future research

Unexplored areas and potential avenues for future cannabis research include targeted cannabinoid therapies through randomized controlled trials ⁶⁹, novel delivery systems to enhance bioavailability ⁷⁰, and cannabis’s capacity for neuroprotection⁷¹. Additionally, studying interactions with other medications, investigating cannabis use in pediatric medicine, and exploring its impact on mental health disorders are crucial areas. These avenues would contribute to understanding the safety, efficacy, and optimal dosages of standardized cannabis preparations, identifying specific cannabinoids for various medical conditions, and expanding the therapeutic potential of cannabis-based medications. By delving into these areas, researchers can unlock the full medical benefits of cannabis while ensuring its safe and sustainable utilization.

Overcoming legal and regulatory barriers to cannabis research

Several challenges and barriers have been found that contribute to the difficulty in initiating research geared toward answering the most pressing public health questions ^72,73. These include the US regulatory status of cannabis and cannabinoids, sources for cannabis and cannabinoid study medications, limited funding and resources to support studies, and federal restrictions on clinical cannabis research resulting from its legal status as defined by the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) and international treaties.

To promote research on cannabis and cannabinoids, these barriers must first be found and addressed. Some proposed solutions include an objective and evidence-based analysis of cannabis policy to better inform policy makers, exploring and characterizing the full scope of political and nonpolitical strategies for resolving regulatory barriers to cannabis research, and addressing these regulatory barriers so that researchers will be better able to address key public health questions about the therapeutic and adverse effects of cannabis and cannabinoid use ⁷⁴.

Ethical considerations and patient access to cannabis-based therapies

The use of cannabis for medical purposes has been legalized in many countries and states, leading to an increase in the number of patients seeking access to cannabis-based therapies. However, there are several ethical considerations that need to be considered when prescribing medical cannabis.

One of the main ethical considerations is ensuring patient safety and access to effective treatments. Due to weak or limited evidence of safety and effectiveness, regulatory and cost obstacles to accessing Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) cannabis medicines, and an absence of unbiased clinical guidance on how to use medical cannabinoids, there is a need for further research and unbiased clinical guidance on the use of medical cannabis⁷⁵.

Another ethical consideration is the potential for conflicts of interest between the physician, the patient, and commercial interests. Physicians have an ethical obligation to develop competency to supply cannabis to proper patients and to recommend cannabis only for conditions that have the strongest evidence base⁷⁶.

Integration of traditional knowledge and modern scientific approaches

Traditional knowledge systems (TKS) are largely local community-dependent practices that have been passed down through generations. These practices can supply valuable insights into the use of cannabis for medicinal and therapeutic purposes.

However, weaving traditional knowledge into modern science perspectives can be challenging as both differ in their characteristics and views. Acceptance and recognition of traditional knowledge, such as folk remedies for illnesses, through modern perspectives needs a multidisciplinary approach. Initiatives towards linking TKS with modern standards of testing may prove to be a useful, relevant, and inexpensive source of potentially therapeutic compounds for human well-being⁷⁷.

Integrating Indigenous knowledge into modern science and addressing the gaps in traditional knowledge for science-policy assessments should be set as a high priority. By combining the strengths of both traditional knowledge and modern scientific approaches, we can gain a deeper understanding of cannabis and its potential uses.

Conclusion

Cannabis extracts from Cannabis sativa, such as ganja fruits and leaves, have extensive therapeutic benefits. Their phytochemical composition, including cannabinoids and terpenes, contributes to diverse therapeutic properties. Throughout history, Cannabis sativa has been used for traditional medicine, recreation, and industry, showing promise in pain management, reducing inflammation, neuroprotection, cancer therapy, and mental health. THC and CBD, the primary cannabinoids, have proven efficacy in addressing various health conditions. Cultural and spiritual significance is attributed to Cannabis saliva’s ethnomedicinal use across cultures. Quantum computing can make the extraction process perfect, enhancing efficiency and yield through quantum algorithms and simulations. Challenges for the future of cannabis-based medicine include legal frameworks, clinical trials, and collaboration between researchers, clinicians, and quantum computing experts. Continued research and collaboration are essential to unlock the full therapeutic potential of cannabis extraction for sustainable production.

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